Glossary

The ForDev glossary provides clear definitions on the key concepts that form the foundation of our research. It is based on current usage of the terms in the scientific literature and published references are given whenever possible. Some concepts accept many different definitions. We then simply present how we decide to use these equivocal concepts,

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Socio-Ecological System

A socio-ecological system (SES) is an integrated and complex combination of both ecosystems and social systems. (external page Berkes & Folke 1998 , external page Anderies et al. 2004 , external page Walker et al. 2004). This concept is based on the assumption that it is impossible to consider either of the two systems without the other. An SES is an intellectual construction, determined by (i) its constitutive elements, (ii) their mutual interactions as well as the interactions with external elements, and (iii) its boundary. As an SES is dependent on the observer, its boundary based on the question at stake and can change over time as knowledge and understanding of the system evolves. An SES has no definite geographical scale. Temporal and spatial scales are linked to processes and we then contemplate as many scales as relevant to the question we explore in that SES.

Ecosystem Services

The external page Millenium Ecosystem Assessment defines Ecosystem Goods and Services as the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. These can include provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services needed to maintain other services.

• Provisioning Services include products such as food, fiber, fuel, fresh water, genetic resources, and natural medicines.
• Regulating Services refers to benefits obtained from regulating ecosystem processes such as air quality, water, erosion, water purification, pollination, etc.
• Cultural services describe the non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems. This can be through spiritual enrichment, social knowledge, educational values, aesthetic values, or sense of place.
• Supporting Services relate to those that are required for the production of all the other ecosystem services. This entails, for example, primary production, nutrient cycling, water cycling, and soil formation.

For a critique of the concept of Ecosystem Services, that conflates goods and services, please see external page Wallace (2007).

Wicked Problems

The term wicked problem was defined by external page Rittel and Webber in 1973 . Wicked problems typically involve multiple stakeholders that disagree on what the problem is, in a context of pervasive uncertainty. Lacking a common definition, a wicked problem cannot be solved using traditional approaches. Solutions to wicked problems will not be right or wrong, but simply more or less acceptable to the stakeholders. They will all have associated costs and entail unforeseen consequences. The quest for solutions thus ends only when resources dry up or when society moves on, effectively deciding there is no longer a problem. The answer to a wicked problem is therefore, not a technical fix, but a political process of problem resolution. Most problems of natural resources management are wicked problems.

Forest

Defining the term forest is challenging and conflict-ridden. We follow the general definition by external page FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization): “[A forest represents] land with tree crown cover (or equivalent stocking level) of more than 10 percent and area of more than 0.5 hectares (ha). The trees should be able to reach a minimum height of 5 meters (m) at maturity in situ.” For more details regarding forest types and definitions, please refer to the external page Convention on Biological Diversity website.

Agroforestry

Agroforestry describes the multiple practices of associating crops and/or livestock to woody perennials (trees) in the same production system. We understand agroforestry as described by external page Leaky (1996), where the combination of trees and agricultural elements are managed to increase and balance social, economic and ecological benefits.

Biodiversity

The term “biodiversity” is used in a broad sense as it is defined in the external page Convention on Biological Diversity to mean “the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.” We add to this that it is understood as one of the attributes of the SES we will describe.

Livelihood

From external page Chambers and Conway’s 1991 definition, “[a] livelihood comprises people, their capabilities and means of living, which includes also food, income and assets.” external page Scoon (1998) identifies five key elements when talking of sustainable livelihood: (1) creation of working days, (2) poverty reduction, (3) well-being and capabilities (1-3 linked to livelihood), (4) livelihood adaptation, vulnerability and resilience, and (5) Natural resource base sustainability (4-5 related to sustainability).

Generally, for the definition of Governance, Well-Being, Policy, Practice and Resilience, we refer to the framework of the Program on Ecosystem Change and Society external page (PECS).